AP Bioligy test notes

• one side of a molecule has a positive charge while the other has a negative charge 
• the strong attraction that hydrogen molecules have for each other is responsible for the special characteristics of water 
• this makes the molecule asymmetrical and highly polar 
• water has a high specific heat 
• marine biome has the most stable temperatures of any biome 
• pH is a measure of the acidity and alkalinity of a solution
• biological systems regulate their pH through buffers 
• four classes of organic compounds are: carbohydrates,lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids 
• carbohydrates consist of carbon,hydrogen and oxygen
• ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms in carbohydrates is always 2 to 1 
• 3 classes of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides
• dehydration synthesis- the releasing of one water molecule 
• hydrolysis- the breakdown of a compound by adding water 
• lipids are hydrophobic 
• glycerol is an alchol 
• fatty acids are either saturated or unsaturated 
• saturated fatty acids contain only single bonds 
• unsaturated fatty acids have at least one double bond formed 
• phospholipids consist of 2 fatty acids attached to a glycerol backbone 
• the head is hydrophillic which means it attracts water
• phospholipid bilayer is a structural basis of a plasma membrane 
• proteins are used for: growth and repair, signaling from one cell to another, regulations of hormones such as insulin blood sugar, movement: actin and myosin are protein fibers responsible for muscle contractions
• amino acids are joined together by peptide bonds 
• amino acids consist of a carboxyl group an amine group and a variable all atatched to a carbon atom 
• the primary structure refers to the unique linear sequence of amino acids 
• the secondary structure results from hydrogen bonding 
• secondary structures are in aplpha helix or beta pleated sheets 
• these are called fibrus proteins 
• tertiary structure is the intricate 3 dimmensional shape or conformation of a protein that is superimposed on its secondary structure 
• the following contribut to the tertiary structure 
• hydrogen bondin between R groups of amino acids 
• Ionic Bonding between R groups Hydrophobic interactions 
• van der waals interactions 
• disulfide bonds between cysteine amino acids 
• quaternary sructure refers to proteins that consists of more than one polypeptide chain 
• under normal cellular conditions, the primary structur of a protein determines how it folds into its particular three-dimensional shape 
• prions are misfolded proteins
• protein structure also depends on physical and chemical conditions 
• conformation of a protein determines how it functions 
• techniques used to reveal the three-dimmensional shape  or conformation of proteins are x-ray crystallography,nuclear magnetic resonance and bioinformatics 
• two nucleic acids are : ribonecleic acids and deoxirobonucleic acids 
• these encode all heredity information 
• P stands for phosphate 
• components of organic molecules that are most often involved in chemical reactions are known as functional groups 
• first law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or destroyed 
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