AP Biology notes

• 1,25 picograms per second 
• the rate after 100 seconds is 0 picograms per second 
• because the substrate has ran out 
• the reaction would keep going till the enzyme ran out  
• the enzyme would not be able to catalyzing
• the reaction would end faster 
• D since they have the same number of electrons, isotopes of the same element are chemically identical. Only some of the isotopes of carbon (such as C-14) are radioactive. Isotopes vary only in the number of neutrons 
• B. Water molecules have strong attraction for each other because they are polar and because of strong hydrogen bonding between molecules 
• The pH of blood remains very close to 7.4 at all times and is maintained by the bicarbonate buffering system. This is an example of how an organism maintains homeostasis or internal solubility 
• Molecule called chaperone proteins or chaperonins assist in the proper folding of other proteins 
• Glycogen is a polysaccharide that stores sugars in the liver and skeletal muscle. Glucose is not stored: it is produced and used up constantly. Glycerol and fatty acids make up lipids. Glucagon is a hormone that is responsible for breaking down glycogen into glucose. Glycine is the simplest amino acid
• Hydrogen bonding is actually an intermolecular attraction between two molecules, not a covelant bond within one molecule. Choice B describes a covelant bond within a molecule. The bond between Na+ and Cl- is ionic. A peptide bond exists between the amino acid and the carboxyl group of an adjacent amino acid 
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AP Biology notes

• living organisms require a constant input of energy 
• the first law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed from one form to another 
• also known as the law of conservation of energy 
• the second law of thermodynamics states that during energy conversions, the universe becomes more disordered 
• free energy is represented by the letter G 
• if energy is released the reaction is exergonic 
•  if in a chemical reaction energy is absorbed the reaction is endergonic 
• exergonice reactions power endergonic reactions 
• metabolism is the sum of all the chemical reactions that take place in cells 
• catabolism- the break down of molecules 
• anabolism the building up of molecules 
• metabollic reactions take place in a series called pathways 
• these pathways are controlled by enzymes 
• catalytic proteins speed up reaction by lowering the activation energy 
• the transition state is the reactive (unstable) condition of the substrate after sufficient energy has been absorbed to initiate the reaction 
• enzymes a globular structures that exhibit tertiary structure 
• as the substrate eneters the active site, it includes the enzyme to alter its shape slightly so the substrate fits better
• the enzyme binds to its substrate, forming an enzyme substrate complex 
• enzymes are reused in a reaction 
• enzymes often require assistance from cofactors or coenzymes 
• the efficiency of an enzyme is affected by temperature and pH 
• In competitive inhibition some compounds resemble the substrate molecules and compete for the same active site enzyme
• these competitive inhibitors reduce the productivity of enzymes by preventing or limiting the substrate from binding to the enzyme 
• allosteric- a change in shape alters efficiency 
• noncompetative inhibitors bind to a site distinct from the active site of the enzyme 
• in feedback inhibitors the end product of the pathway is the allosteric inhibitor for an enzyme that catalyzes an early step in the pathway 
• coopertivity is the binding of one substrate molecule to one active site of one subunit of the enzyme causes a change in the entire molecue and locks all subunits in an active position 
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individuality

Individuality is important because our individuality gives us the tools to contribute to society. Out individuality allows us to create new ideas to solve problems. Individuality is a culmination of ones experiences and those experiences bring great breakthrough to problems. The different ways of thinking allows us to see different perspectives and makes the world a better place because when we accept others individuality then we can learn to be more peaceful. 

AP Bioligy test notes

• one side of a molecule has a positive charge while the other has a negative charge 
• the strong attraction that hydrogen molecules have for each other is responsible for the special characteristics of water 
• this makes the molecule asymmetrical and highly polar 
• water has a high specific heat 
• marine biome has the most stable temperatures of any biome 
• pH is a measure of the acidity and alkalinity of a solution
• biological systems regulate their pH through buffers 
• four classes of organic compounds are: carbohydrates,lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids 
• carbohydrates consist of carbon,hydrogen and oxygen
• ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms in carbohydrates is always 2 to 1 
• 3 classes of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides
• dehydration synthesis- the releasing of one water molecule 
• hydrolysis- the breakdown of a compound by adding water 
• lipids are hydrophobic 
• glycerol is an alchol 
• fatty acids are either saturated or unsaturated 
• saturated fatty acids contain only single bonds 
• unsaturated fatty acids have at least one double bond formed 
• phospholipids consist of 2 fatty acids attached to a glycerol backbone 
• the head is hydrophillic which means it attracts water
• phospholipid bilayer is a structural basis of a plasma membrane 
• proteins are used for: growth and repair, signaling from one cell to another, regulations of hormones such as insulin blood sugar, movement: actin and myosin are protein fibers responsible for muscle contractions
• amino acids are joined together by peptide bonds 
• amino acids consist of a carboxyl group an amine group and a variable all atatched to a carbon atom 
• the primary structure refers to the unique linear sequence of amino acids 
• the secondary structure results from hydrogen bonding 
• secondary structures are in aplpha helix or beta pleated sheets 
• these are called fibrus proteins 
• tertiary structure is the intricate 3 dimmensional shape or conformation of a protein that is superimposed on its secondary structure 
• the following contribut to the tertiary structure 
• hydrogen bondin between R groups of amino acids 
• Ionic Bonding between R groups Hydrophobic interactions 
• van der waals interactions 
• disulfide bonds between cysteine amino acids 
• quaternary sructure refers to proteins that consists of more than one polypeptide chain 
• under normal cellular conditions, the primary structur of a protein determines how it folds into its particular three-dimensional shape 
• prions are misfolded proteins
• protein structure also depends on physical and chemical conditions 
• conformation of a protein determines how it functions 
• techniques used to reveal the three-dimmensional shape  or conformation of proteins are x-ray crystallography,nuclear magnetic resonance and bioinformatics 
• two nucleic acids are : ribonecleic acids and deoxirobonucleic acids 
• these encode all heredity information 
• P stands for phosphate 
• components of organic molecules that are most often involved in chemical reactions are known as functional groups 
• first law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or destroyed 
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AP Bioligy Test notes

• section 1 consists of 63 multiple- choice and 6 grid in questions. It takes 90 minutes 
• always guess if you dont know the answer 
• the answers in part 2 mus be in essay form and the readers want to see lots of correct information 
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